List of Tables
Table 1. Global OTC Herbal and Traditional Medicines Market Value by Type (US$ Million), 2025 vs 2032
Table 2. Global OTC Herbal and Traditional Medicines Market Value by Application (US$ Million), 2025 vs 2032
Table 3. Global OTC Herbal and Traditional Medicines Market Competitive Situation by Manufacturers in 2025
Table 4. Global OTC Herbal and Traditional Medicines Sales (MT) of Key Manufacturers (2021–2026)
Table 5. Global OTC Herbal and Traditional Medicines Sales Market Share by Manufacturers (2021–2026)
Table 6. Global OTC Herbal and Traditional Medicines Revenue (US$ Million) by Manufacturers (2021–2026)
Table 7. Global OTC Herbal and Traditional Medicines Revenue Share by Manufacturers (2021–2026)
Table 8. Global Market OTC Herbal and Traditional Medicines Average Price (USD/Kg) of Key Manufacturers (2021–2026)
Table 9. Global Key Players of OTC Herbal and Traditional Medicines, Industry Ranking, 2023 vs 2024 vs 2025
Table 10. Global Key Manufacturers of OTC Herbal and Traditional Medicines, Manufacturing Sites and Headquarters
Table 11. Global Key Manufacturers of OTC Herbal and Traditional Medicines, Product Types and Applications
Table 12. Global Key Manufacturers of OTC Herbal and Traditional Medicines, Date of Entry into the Industry
Table 13. Global Manufacturers Market Concentration Ratio (CR5 and HHI)
Table 14. Global OTC Herbal and Traditional Medicines Companies by Tier (Tier 1, Tier 2, Tier 3), based on OTC Herbal and Traditional Medicines Revenue, 2025
Table 15. Manufacturers Mergers & Acquisitions, Expansion Plans
Table 16. Global OTC Herbal and Traditional Medicines Market Size by Region (US$ Million): 2021 vs 2025 vs 2032
Table 17. Global OTC Herbal and Traditional Medicines Sales by Region (MT), 2021–2026
Table 18. Global OTC Herbal and Traditional Medicines Sales Market Share by Region (2021–2026)
Table 19. Global OTC Herbal and Traditional Medicines Sales by Region (MT), 2027–2032
Table 20. Global OTC Herbal and Traditional Medicines Sales Market Share by Region (2027–2032)
Table 21. Global OTC Herbal and Traditional Medicines Revenue by Region (US$ Million), 2021–2026
Table 22. Global OTC Herbal and Traditional Medicines Revenue Market Share by Region (2021–2026)
Table 23. Global OTC Herbal and Traditional Medicines Revenue by Region (US$ Million), 2027–2032
Table 24. Global OTC Herbal and Traditional Medicines Revenue Market Share by Region (2027–2032)
Table 25. North America OTC Herbal and Traditional Medicines Revenue by Country: 2021 vs 2025 vs 2032 (US$ Million)
Table 26. North America OTC Herbal and Traditional Medicines Sales by Country (MT), 2021–2026
Table 27. North America OTC Herbal and Traditional Medicines Sales by Country (MT), 2027–2032
Table 28. North America OTC Herbal and Traditional Medicines Revenue by Country (US$ Million), 2021–2026
Table 29. North America OTC Herbal and Traditional Medicines Revenue by Country (US$ Million), 2027–2032
Table 30. Europe OTC Herbal and Traditional Medicines Revenue by Country: 2021 vs 2025 vs 2032 (US$ Million)
Table 31. Europe OTC Herbal and Traditional Medicines Sales by Country (MT), 2021–2026
Table 32. Europe OTC Herbal and Traditional Medicines Sales by Country (MT), 2027–2032
Table 33. Europe OTC Herbal and Traditional Medicines Revenue by Country (US$ Million), 2021–2026
Table 34. Europe OTC Herbal and Traditional Medicines Revenue by Country (US$ Million), 2027–2032
Table 35. Asia Pacific OTC Herbal and Traditional Medicines Revenue by Region: 2021 vs 2025 vs 2032 (US$ Million)
Table 36. Asia Pacific OTC Herbal and Traditional Medicines Sales by Region (MT), 2021–2026
Table 37. Asia Pacific OTC Herbal and Traditional Medicines Sales by Region (MT), 2027–2032
Table 38. Asia Pacific OTC Herbal and Traditional Medicines Revenue by Region (US$ Million), 2021–2026
Table 39. Asia Pacific OTC Herbal and Traditional Medicines Revenue by Region (US$ Million), 2027–2032
Table 40. Latin America OTC Herbal and Traditional Medicines Revenue by Country: 2021 vs 2025 vs 2032 (US$ Million)
Table 41. Latin America OTC Herbal and Traditional Medicines Sales by Country (MT), 2021–2026
Table 42. Latin America OTC Herbal and Traditional Medicines Sales by Country (MT), 2027–2032
Table 43. Latin America OTC Herbal and Traditional Medicines Revenue by Country (US$ Million), 2021–2026
Table 44. Latin America OTC Herbal and Traditional Medicines Revenue by Country (US$ Million), 2027–2032
Table 45. Middle East and Africa OTC Herbal and Traditional Medicines Revenue by Country: 2021 vs 2025 vs 2032 (US$ Million)
Table 46. Middle East and Africa OTC Herbal and Traditional Medicines Sales by Country (MT), 2021–2026
Table 47. Middle East and Africa OTC Herbal and Traditional Medicines Sales by Country (MT), 2027–2032
Table 48. Middle East and Africa OTC Herbal and Traditional Medicines Revenue by Country (US$ Million), 2021–2026
Table 49. Middle East and Africa OTC Herbal and Traditional Medicines Revenue by Country (US$ Million), 2027–2032
Table 50. Global OTC Herbal and Traditional Medicines Sales (MT) by Type (2021–2026)
Table 51. Global OTC Herbal and Traditional Medicines Sales (MT) by Type (2027–2032)
Table 52. Global OTC Herbal and Traditional Medicines Sales Market Share by Type (2021–2026)
Table 53. Global OTC Herbal and Traditional Medicines Sales Market Share by Type (2027–2032)
Table 54. Global OTC Herbal and Traditional Medicines Revenue (US$ Million) by Type (2021–2026)
Table 55. Global OTC Herbal and Traditional Medicines Revenue (US$ Million) by Type (2027–2032)
Table 56. Global OTC Herbal and Traditional Medicines Revenue Market Share by Type (2021–2026)
Table 57. Global OTC Herbal and Traditional Medicines Revenue Market Share by Type (2027–2032)
Table 58. Global OTC Herbal and Traditional Medicines Price (USD/Kg) by Type (2021–2026)
Table 59. Global OTC Herbal and Traditional Medicines Price (USD/Kg) by Type (2027–2032)
Table 60. Global OTC Herbal and Traditional Medicines Sales (MT) by Application (2021–2026)
Table 61. Global OTC Herbal and Traditional Medicines Sales (MT) by Application (2027–2032)
Table 62. Global OTC Herbal and Traditional Medicines Sales Market Share by Application (2021–2026)
Table 63. Global OTC Herbal and Traditional Medicines Sales Market Share by Application (2027–2032)
Table 64. Global OTC Herbal and Traditional Medicines Revenue (US$ Million) by Application (2021–2026)
Table 65. Global OTC Herbal and Traditional Medicines Revenue (US$ Million) by Application (2027–2032)
Table 66. Global OTC Herbal and Traditional Medicines Revenue Market Share by Application (2021–2026)
Table 67. Global OTC Herbal and Traditional Medicines Revenue Market Share by Application (2027–2032)
Table 68. Global OTC Herbal and Traditional Medicines Price (USD/Kg) by Application (2021–2026)
Table 69. Global OTC Herbal and Traditional Medicines Price (USD/Kg) by Application (2027–2032)
Table 70. Tsumura Company Information
Table 71. Tsumura Description and Business Overview
Table 72. Tsumura OTC Herbal and Traditional Medicines Sales (MT), Revenue (US$ Million), Price (USD/Kg), and Gross Margin (2021–2026)
Table 73. Tsumura OTC Herbal and Traditional Medicines Product
Table 74. Tsumura Recent Developments/Updates
Table 75. Schwabe Company Information
Table 76. Schwabe Description and Business Overview
Table 77. Schwabe OTC Herbal and Traditional Medicines Sales (MT), Revenue (US$ Million), Price (USD/Kg), and Gross Margin (2021–2026)
Table 78. Schwabe OTC Herbal and Traditional Medicines Product
Table 79. Schwabe Recent Developments/Updates
Table 80. Madaus Company Information
Table 81. Madaus Description and Business Overview
Table 82. Madaus OTC Herbal and Traditional Medicines Sales (MT), Revenue (US$ Million), Price (USD/Kg), and Gross Margin (2021–2026)
Table 83. Madaus OTC Herbal and Traditional Medicines Product
Table 84. Madaus Recent Developments/Updates
Table 85. Weleda Company Information
Table 86. Weleda Description and Business Overview
Table 87. Weleda OTC Herbal and Traditional Medicines Sales (MT), Revenue (US$ Million), Price (USD/Kg), and Gross Margin (2021–2026)
Table 88. Weleda OTC Herbal and Traditional Medicines Product
Table 89. Weleda Recent Developments/Updates
Table 90. Blackmores Company Information
Table 91. Blackmores Description and Business Overview
Table 92. Blackmores OTC Herbal and Traditional Medicines Sales (MT), Revenue (US$ Million), Price (USD/Kg), and Gross Margin (2021–2026)
Table 93. Blackmores OTC Herbal and Traditional Medicines Product
Table 94. Blackmores Recent Developments/Updates
Table 95. Arkopharma Company Information
Table 96. Arkopharma Description and Business Overview
Table 97. Arkopharma OTC Herbal and Traditional Medicines Sales (MT), Revenue (US$ Million), Price (USD/Kg), and Gross Margin (2021–2026)
Table 98. Arkopharma OTC Herbal and Traditional Medicines Product
Table 99. Arkopharma Recent Developments/Updates
Table 100. SIDO MUNCUL Company Information
Table 101. SIDO MUNCUL Description and Business Overview
Table 102. SIDO MUNCUL OTC Herbal and Traditional Medicines Sales (MT), Revenue (US$ Million), Price (USD/Kg), and Gross Margin (2021–2026)
Table 103. SIDO MUNCUL OTC Herbal and Traditional Medicines Product
Table 104. SIDO MUNCUL Recent Developments/Updates
Table 105. Arizona Natural Company Information
Table 106. Arizona Natural Description and Business Overview
Table 107. Arizona Natural OTC Herbal and Traditional Medicines Sales (MT), Revenue (US$ Million), Price (USD/Kg), and Gross Margin (2021–2026)
Table 108. Arizona Natural OTC Herbal and Traditional Medicines Product
Table 109. Arizona Natural Recent Developments/Updates
Table 110. Dabur Company Information
Table 111. Dabur Description and Business Overview
Table 112. Dabur OTC Herbal and Traditional Medicines Sales (MT), Revenue (US$ Million), Price (USD/Kg), and Gross Margin (2021–2026)
Table 113. Dabur OTC Herbal and Traditional Medicines Product
Table 114. Dabur Recent Developments/Updates
Table 115. Herbal Africa Company Information
Table 116. Herbal Africa Description and Business Overview
Table 117. Herbal Africa OTC Herbal and Traditional Medicines Sales (MT), Revenue (US$ Million), Price (USD/Kg), and Gross Margin (2021–2026)
Table 118. Herbal Africa OTC Herbal and Traditional Medicines Product
Table 119. Herbal Africa Recent Developments/Updates
Table 120. Nature’s Answer Company Information
Table 121. Nature’s Answer Description and Business Overview
Table 122. Nature’s Answer OTC Herbal and Traditional Medicines Sales (MT), Revenue (US$ Million), Price (USD/Kg), and Gross Margin (2021–2026)
Table 123. Nature’s Answer OTC Herbal and Traditional Medicines Product
Table 124. Nature’s Answer Recent Developments/Updates
Table 125. Bio-Botanica Company Information
Table 126. Bio-Botanica Description and Business Overview
Table 127. Bio-Botanica OTC Herbal and Traditional Medicines Sales (MT), Revenue (US$ Million), Price (USD/Kg), and Gross Margin (2021–2026)
Table 128. Bio-Botanica OTC Herbal and Traditional Medicines Product
Table 129. Bio-Botanica Recent Developments/Updates
Table 130. Potter’s Company Information
Table 131. Potter’s Description and Business Overview
Table 132. Potter’s OTC Herbal and Traditional Medicines Sales (MT), Revenue (US$ Million), Price (USD/Kg), and Gross Margin (2021–2026)
Table 133. Potter’s OTC Herbal and Traditional Medicines Product
Table 134. Potter’s Recent Developments/Updates
Table 135. Zand Company Information
Table 136. Zand Description and Business Overview
Table 137. Zand OTC Herbal and Traditional Medicines Sales (MT), Revenue (US$ Million), Price (USD/Kg), and Gross Margin (2021–2026)
Table 138. Zand OTC Herbal and Traditional Medicines Product
Table 139. Zand Recent Developments/Updates
Table 140. Nature Herbs Company Information
Table 141. Nature Herbs Description and Business Overview
Table 142. Nature Herbs OTC Herbal and Traditional Medicines Sales (MT), Revenue (US$ Million), Price (USD/Kg), and Gross Margin (2021–2026)
Table 143. Nature Herbs OTC Herbal and Traditional Medicines Product
Table 144. Nature Herbs Recent Developments/Updates
Table 145. Imperial Ginseng Company Information
Table 146. Imperial Ginseng Description and Business Overview
Table 147. Imperial Ginseng OTC Herbal and Traditional Medicines Sales (MT), Revenue (US$ Million), Price (USD/Kg), and Gross Margin (2021–2026)
Table 148. Imperial Ginseng OTC Herbal and Traditional Medicines Product
Table 149. Imperial Ginseng Recent Developments/Updates
Table 150. Yunnan Baiyao Company Information
Table 151. Yunnan Baiyao Description and Business Overview
Table 152. Yunnan Baiyao OTC Herbal and Traditional Medicines Sales (MT), Revenue (US$ Million), Price (USD/Kg), and Gross Margin (2021–2026)
Table 153. Yunnan Baiyao OTC Herbal and Traditional Medicines Product
Table 154. Yunnan Baiyao Recent Developments/Updates
Table 155. Tongrentang Company Information
Table 156. Tongrentang Description and Business Overview
Table 157. Tongrentang OTC Herbal and Traditional Medicines Sales (MT), Revenue (US$ Million), Price (USD/Kg), and Gross Margin (2021–2026)
Table 158. Tongrentang OTC Herbal and Traditional Medicines Product
Table 159. Tongrentang Recent Developments/Updates
Table 160. TASLY Company Information
Table 161. TASLY Description and Business Overview
Table 162. TASLY OTC Herbal and Traditional Medicines Sales (MT), Revenue (US$ Million), Price (USD/Kg), and Gross Margin (2021–2026)
Table 163. TASLY OTC Herbal and Traditional Medicines Product
Table 164. TASLY Recent Developments/Updates
Table 165. Zhongxin Company Information
Table 166. Zhongxin Description and Business Overview
Table 167. Zhongxin OTC Herbal and Traditional Medicines Sales (MT), Revenue (US$ Million), Price (USD/Kg), and Gross Margin (2021–2026)
Table 168. Zhongxin OTC Herbal and Traditional Medicines Product
Table 169. Zhongxin Recent Developments/Updates
Table 170. Kunming Pharma Company Information
Table 171. Kunming Pharma Description and Business Overview
Table 172. Kunming Pharma OTC Herbal and Traditional Medicines Sales (MT), Revenue (US$ Million), Price (USD/Kg), and Gross Margin (2021–2026)
Table 173. Kunming Pharma OTC Herbal and Traditional Medicines Product
Table 174. Kunming Pharma Recent Developments/Updates
Table 175. Sanjiu Company Information
Table 176. Sanjiu Description and Business Overview
Table 177. Sanjiu OTC Herbal and Traditional Medicines Sales (MT), Revenue (US$ Million), Price (USD/Kg), and Gross Margin (2021–2026)
Table 178. Sanjiu OTC Herbal and Traditional Medicines Product
Table 179. Sanjiu Recent Developments/Updates
Table 180. JZJT Company Information
Table 181. JZJT Description and Business Overview
Table 182. JZJT OTC Herbal and Traditional Medicines Sales (MT), Revenue (US$ Million), Price (USD/Kg), and Gross Margin (2021–2026)
Table 183. JZJT OTC Herbal and Traditional Medicines Product
Table 184. JZJT Recent Developments/Updates
Table 185. Guangzhou Pharma Company Information
Table 186. Guangzhou Pharma Description and Business Overview
Table 187. Guangzhou Pharma OTC Herbal and Traditional Medicines Sales (MT), Revenue (US$ Million), Price (USD/Kg), and Gross Margin (2021–2026)
Table 188. Guangzhou Pharma OTC Herbal and Traditional Medicines Product
Table 189. Guangzhou Pharma Recent Developments/Updates
Table 190. Taiji Company Information
Table 191. Taiji Description and Business Overview
Table 192. Taiji OTC Herbal and Traditional Medicines Sales (MT), Revenue (US$ Million), Price (USD/Kg), and Gross Margin (2021–2026)
Table 193. Taiji OTC Herbal and Traditional Medicines Product
Table 194. Taiji Recent Developments/Updates
Table 195. Haiyao Company Information
Table 196. Haiyao Description and Business Overview
Table 197. Haiyao OTC Herbal and Traditional Medicines Sales (MT), Revenue (US$ Million), Price (USD/Kg), and Gross Margin (2021–2026)
Table 198. Haiyao OTC Herbal and Traditional Medicines Product
Table 199. Haiyao Recent Developments/Updates
Table 200. Key Raw Materials Lists
Table 201. Raw Materials Key Suppliers Lists
Table 202. OTC Herbal and Traditional Medicines Distributors List
Table 203. OTC Herbal and Traditional Medicines Customers List
Table 204. OTC Herbal and Traditional Medicines Market Trends
Table 205. OTC Herbal and Traditional Medicines Market Drivers
Table 206. OTC Herbal and Traditional Medicines Market Challenges
Table 207. OTC Herbal and Traditional Medicines Market Restraints
Table 208. Research Programs/Design for This Report
Table 209. Key Data Information from Secondary Sources
Table 210. Key Data Information from Primary Sources
Table 211. Authors List of This Report
List of Figures
Figure 1. Product Picture of OTC Herbal and Traditional Medicines
Figure 2. Global OTC Herbal and Traditional Medicines Market Value by Type (US$ Million), 2021–2032
Figure 3. Global OTC Herbal and Traditional Medicines Market Share by Type: 2025 & 2032
Figure 4. OTC Herbal Product Picture
Figure 5. Traditional Medicine Product Picture
Figure 6. Global OTC Herbal and Traditional Medicines Market Value by Application (US$ Million), 2021–2032
Figure 7. Global OTC Herbal and Traditional Medicines Market Share by Application: 2025 & 2032
Figure 8. Detoxification Medicine
Figure 9. Antipyretic Medicine
Figure 10. Digestive Medicine
Figure 11. Blood Circulation Medicine
Figure 12. Global OTC Herbal and Traditional Medicines Revenue, (US$ Million), 2021 vs 2025 vs 2032
Figure 13. Global OTC Herbal and Traditional Medicines Market Size (US$ Million), 2021–2032
Figure 14. Global OTC Herbal and Traditional Medicines Sales (MT), 2021–2032
Figure 15. Global OTC Herbal and Traditional Medicines Average Price (USD/Kg), 2021–2032
Figure 16. OTC Herbal and Traditional Medicines Report Years Considered
Figure 17. OTC Herbal and Traditional Medicines Sales Share by Manufacturers in 2025
Figure 18. Global OTC Herbal and Traditional Medicines Revenue Share by Manufacturers in 2025
Figure 19. Top 5 and Top 10 Global OTC Herbal and Traditional Medicines Players: Market Share by Revenue in OTC Herbal and Traditional Medicines in 2025
Figure 20. OTC Herbal and Traditional Medicines Market Share by Company Type (Tier 1, Tier 2, and Tier 3): 2021 vs 2025
Figure 21. Global OTC Herbal and Traditional Medicines Market Size by Region (US$ Million): 2021 vs 2025 vs 2032
Figure 22. North America OTC Herbal and Traditional Medicines Sales Market Share by Country (2021–2032)
Figure 23. North America OTC Herbal and Traditional Medicines Revenue Market Share by Country (2021–2032)
Figure 24. U.S. OTC Herbal and Traditional Medicines Revenue Growth Rate (US$ Million), 2021–2032
Figure 25. Canada OTC Herbal and Traditional Medicines Revenue Growth Rate (US$ Million), 2021–2032
Figure 26. Europe OTC Herbal and Traditional Medicines Sales Market Share by Country (2021–2032)
Figure 27. Europe OTC Herbal and Traditional Medicines Revenue Market Share by Country (2021–2032)
Figure 28. Germany OTC Herbal and Traditional Medicines Revenue Growth Rate (US$ Million), 2021–2032
Figure 29. France OTC Herbal and Traditional Medicines Revenue Growth Rate (US$ Million), 2021–2032
Figure 30. U.K. OTC Herbal and Traditional Medicines Revenue Growth Rate (US$ Million), 2021–2032
Figure 31. Italy OTC Herbal and Traditional Medicines Revenue Growth Rate (US$ Million), 2021–2032
Figure 32. Russia OTC Herbal and Traditional Medicines Revenue Growth Rate (US$ Million), 2021–2032
Figure 33. Asia Pacific OTC Herbal and Traditional Medicines Sales Market Share by Region (2021–2032)
Figure 34. Asia Pacific OTC Herbal and Traditional Medicines Revenue Market Share by Region (2021–2032)
Figure 35. China OTC Herbal and Traditional Medicines Revenue Growth Rate (US$ Million), 2021–2032
Figure 36. Japan OTC Herbal and Traditional Medicines Revenue Growth Rate (US$ Million), 2021–2032
Figure 37. South Korea OTC Herbal and Traditional Medicines Revenue Growth Rate (US$ Million), 2021–2032
Figure 38. India OTC Herbal and Traditional Medicines Revenue Growth Rate (US$ Million), 2021–2032
Figure 39. Australia OTC Herbal and Traditional Medicines Revenue Growth Rate (US$ Million), 2021–2032
Figure 40. China Taiwan OTC Herbal and Traditional Medicines Revenue Growth Rate (US$ Million), 2021–2032
Figure 41. Indonesia OTC Herbal and Traditional Medicines Revenue Growth Rate (US$ Million), 2021–2032
Figure 42. Thailand OTC Herbal and Traditional Medicines Revenue Growth Rate (US$ Million), 2021–2032
Figure 43. Malaysia OTC Herbal and Traditional Medicines Revenue Growth Rate (US$ Million), 2021–2032
Figure 44. Latin America OTC Herbal and Traditional Medicines Sales Market Share by Country (2021–2032)
Figure 45. Latin America OTC Herbal and Traditional Medicines Revenue Market Share by Country (2021–2032)
Figure 46. Mexico OTC Herbal and Traditional Medicines Revenue Growth Rate (US$ Million), 2021–2032
Figure 47. Brazil OTC Herbal and Traditional Medicines Revenue Growth Rate (US$ Million), 2021–2032
Figure 48. Argentina OTC Herbal and Traditional Medicines Revenue Growth Rate (US$ Million), 2021–2032
Figure 49. Middle East and Africa OTC Herbal and Traditional Medicines Sales Market Share by Country (2021–2032)
Figure 50. Middle East and Africa OTC Herbal and Traditional Medicines Revenue Market Share by Country (2021–2032)
Figure 51. Turkey OTC Herbal and Traditional Medicines Revenue Growth Rate (US$ Million), 2021–2032
Figure 52. Saudi Arabia OTC Herbal and Traditional Medicines Revenue Growth Rate (US$ Million), 2021–2032
Figure 53. UAE OTC Herbal and Traditional Medicines Revenue Growth Rate (US$ Million), 2021–2032
Figure 54. Global Sales Market Share of OTC Herbal and Traditional Medicines by Type (2021–2032)
Figure 55. Global Revenue Market Share of OTC Herbal and Traditional Medicines by Type (2021–2032)
Figure 56. Global OTC Herbal and Traditional Medicines Price (USD/Kg) by Type (2021–2032)
Figure 57. Global Sales Market Share of OTC Herbal and Traditional Medicines by Application (2021–2032)
Figure 58. Global Revenue Market Share of OTC Herbal and Traditional Medicines by Application (2021–2032)
Figure 59. Global OTC Herbal and Traditional Medicines Price (USD/Kg) by Application (2021–2032)
Figure 60. OTC Herbal and Traditional Medicines Value Chain
Figure 61. Channels of Distribution (Direct Vs Distribution)
Figure 62. Bottom-up and Top-down Approaches for This Report
Figure 63. Data Triangulation
Figure 64. Key Executives Interviewed
